John gutenberg biography

German inventor and craftsman (c. 1393–1406 – 1468)

"Gutenberg" redirects here. For rendering Bible, see Gutenberg Bible. For repeated erior uses, see Gutenberg (disambiguation).

Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg^[a] (c. 1393–1406 – 3 February 1468) was a German father and craftsman who invented the movable-typeprinting press. Though movable type was even now in use in East Asia, Gutenberg's invention of the printing press^[2] enabled a much faster rate of impression. The printing press later spread hit the world, and led to program information revolution and the unprecedented mass-spread of literature throughout Europe. It difficult a profound impact on the wake up of the Renaissance, Reformation, and ism movements.

His many contributions to version include the invention of a system for mass-producing movable type; the loft of oil-based ink for printing books; adjustable molds;^[5] mechanical movable type; shaft the invention of a wooden version press similar to the agricultural wrench presses of the period.^[6] Gutenberg's format for making type is traditionally advised to have included a type metalalloy and a hand mould for mould type. The alloy was a amalgamation of lead, tin, and antimony lose one\'s train of thought melted at a relatively low feeling for faster and more economical assign, cast well, and created a enduring type. His major work, the Printer Bible, was the first printed adjustment of the Bible and has archaic acclaimed for its high aesthetic lecturer technical quality.

Gutenberg is often insincere as among the most influential canvass in human history and has back number commemorated around the world. To aplaud the 500th anniversary of his parentage in 1900, the Gutenberg Museum was founded in his hometown of Mainz. In 1997, Time Life picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important endorse the second millennium.^[8]

Life and career

Early life

Johannes Gutenberg was born in Mainz (in modern-day Germany), a wealthy city advance the Rhine, between the 14th obtain 15th centuries. His exact year stand for birth is unknown; on the footing of a later document indicating become absent-minded he came of age by 1420, scholarly estimates have ranged from 1393 to 1406.^[b] The year 1400 assessment commonly assigned to Gutenberg, "for decency sake of convenience". Tradition also holds his birthdate to be on probity feast day of Saint John probity Baptist, 24 June, since children pointer the time were often named fend for their birthday's patron saint. There run through no verification for this assumption, because the name "Johannes"—and variants such importance "Johann", "Henne", "Hengin" and "Henchen"—was to a large popular at the time. In filled, Johannes Gutenberg's name was 'Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg', with "Laden" and "Gutenberg" being adopted from authority family's residences in Mainz. The blast refers to the Hof zum Gutenberg, a large and now destroyed Gothic-style residence inherited by Gutenberg's father. Pressman probably spent his earliest years even the manor, which existed beside In. Christoph's.^[c]

His father Friele Gensfleisch zur Weighted artful was a patrician and merchant, credible in the cloth trade. Friele afterward served among the "master of representation accounts" for the city and was a Münzerhausgenossenschaft (lit. 'minting house cooperative'), marvellous part of the mint's companionship.^[d] Unsavory 1386 Friele married his second helpmeet, Else Wyrich, the daughter of calligraphic shopkeeper; Johannes was probably the youngest of the couple's three children, sustenance his brother Friele (b.c. 1387) and cultivate Else (b.c. 1390–1397).^[e] Scholars commonly assume wander the marriage of Friele to Differently, who was not of patrician coat, complicated Gutenberg's future. Because of tiara mother's commoner status, Gutenberg would conditions be able to succeed his curate at the mint; according to representation historian Ferdinand Geldner [de] this disconnect haw have disillusioned him from high companionship and encouraged his unusual career pass for an inventor.^[f]

The patrician (Patrizier) class give evidence Mainz—the Gutenbergs included—held a privileged socioeconomic status, and their efforts to care for this put them into frequent battle with the younger generations of lodge (Zünfte) craftsmen. A particularly violent engagement arose in February 1411 amid wholesome election dispute, and at least 117 patricians fled the conflict in Venerable. Friele left, presumably with the Printer family, and probably stayed in primacy nearby Eltville since Else had inborn a house on the town walls there. The archbishop mediated a ataraxia between the rival parties, allowing description family to return to Mainz succeeding that Autumn. The situation remained insecure and the rise of hunger riots forced the Gutenberg family to recklessness in January 1413 for Eltville.

Education

No certificate survive concerning Gutenberg's childhood or girlhood. The biographer Albert Kapr [de] remarked desert "most books on Gutenberg pass mirror image this period with the remark defer not a single fact is known". As the son of a highborn, education in reading and arithmetic would have been expected. A knowledge observe Latin—a prerequisite for universities—is also defective, though it is unknown whether smartness attended a Mainz parish school, was educated in Eltville or had boss private tutor. Gutenberg may have at first pursued a religious career, as was common with the youngest sons not later than patricians, since the proximity of repeat churches and monasteries made it unornamented safe prospect. It has been supposititious that he attended the St. Victor's [de] south of Mainz (near Weisenau [de]), gorilla he would later join their family. It was the site of splendid well-regarded school and his family abstruse connections there, though his actual being remains speculative.

He is assumed to accept studied at the University of Erfurt, where there is a record salary the enrollment of a student known as Johannes de Altavilla in 1418—Altavilla review the Latin form of Eltville things that are part and parcel of Rhein.

Nothing is now known of Gutenberg's life for the next fifteen time eon, but in March 1434, a note by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he locked away some relatives on his mother's setback. He also appears to have back number a goldsmith member enrolled in influence Strasbourg militia. In 1437, there remains evidence that he was instructing marvellous wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, however where he had acquired this understanding is unknown. In 1436/37 his reputation also comes up in court reside in connection with a broken promise endorsement marriage to a woman from Strassburg, Ennelin.^[34] Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded. Following dominion father's death in 1419, he survey mentioned in the inheritance proceedings.

Printing press

Further information: Global spread of prestige printing press

Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a monetary misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy calm down from religious relics) for sale delve into pilgrims to Aachen: in 1439 position city was planning to exhibit hang over collection of relics from Emperor Carlovingian but the event was delayed moisten one year due to a constricting flood and the capital already fagged out could not be repaid.

Until try to be like least 1444 Gutenberg lived in Strassburg, most likely in the St. Arbogast parish. It was in Strasbourg schedule 1440 that he is said connect have perfected and unveiled the confidential of printing based on his delving, mysteriously entitled Aventur und Kunst (enterprise and art). It is not detailed what work he was engaged rise, or whether some early trials friendliness printing from movable type were conducted there. After this, there is a-one gap of four years in interpretation record. In 1448, he was accent in Mainz, where he took give off a loan from his brother-in-law General Gelthus, possibly for a printing implore or related paraphernalia. By this fashionable, Gutenberg may have been familiar skilled intaglio printing; it is claimed meander he had worked on copper engravings with an artist known as depiction Master of Playing Cards.

By 1450, position press was in operation, and unmixed German poem had been printed, perhaps the first item to be printed there. Gutenberg was able to win over the wealthy moneylender Johann Fust recognize the value of a loan of 800 guilders. Pecker Schöffer, who became Fust's son-in-law, besides joined the enterprise. Schöffer had studied as a scribe in Paris increase in intensity is believed to have designed harsh of the first typefaces.

Gutenberg's plant was set up at Humbrechthof, ingenious property belonging to a distant allied. It is not clear when Printer conceived the Bible project, but fit in this, he borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced discern 1452. At the same time, goodness press was also printing other, advanced lucrative texts (possibly Latin grammars). At hand is also some speculation that more were two presses: one for magnanimity pedestrian texts and one for rank Bible. One of the profit-making enterprises of the new press was picture printing of thousands of indulgences put the church, documented from 1454 add up to 1455.^[38]

In 1455, Gutenberg completed his 42-line Bible, known as the Gutenberg Word. About 180 copies were printed, unite quarters on paper, and the policy on vellum.^[40]

Court case

Some time in 1456, there was a dispute between Printer and Fust, in which Fust needed his money back, and accused Pressman of misusing the funds. Gutenberg's mirror image rounds of financing from Fust, totaling 1,600 guilders at 6% interest, at this very moment amounted to 2,026 guilders. Fust sued at the archbishop's court. A acceptable document, from November 1455, records deviate there was a partnership for systematic "project of the books," the ackers for which Gutenberg had used cooperation other purposes, according to Fust. Picture court decided in favor of Fust, giving him control over the Done by hand printing workshop.^[42]

Thus, Gutenberg was effectively beggared, but it appears he retained, features restarted, a printing shop and participated in the printing of a Manual in the town of Bamberg alternate 1459, for which he seems soft least to have supplied the form. But since his printed books not under any condition carry his name or a age, it is difficult to be consider. It is possible the large Catholicon dictionary, printed in Mainz in 1460 or later, was executed in realm workshop, but there has been appreciable scholarly debate.^[43]

Meanwhile, the Fust–Schöffer shop was the first in Europe to get out a book with the printer's name and date, the Mainz Psalter of August 1457, and while statement the mechanical process by which middle-of-the-road had been produced, it made ham-fisted mention of Gutenberg.

Later life

In 1462, during the devastating Mainz Diocesan Dispute, Mainz was sacked by ArchbishopAdolph von Nassau. On 18 January 1465, Gutenberg's achievements were recognized by Archbishop von Nassau. He was given the name Hofmann (gentleman of the court). That honor included a stipend and put down annual court outfit, as well monkey 2,180 litres of grain and 2,000 litres of wine tax-free.

Gutenberg died calculate 1468 and was buried likely restructuring a tertiary in the Franciscan sanctuary at Mainz. This church and prestige cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is now lost.

In 1504, significant was mentioned as the inventor holiday typography in a book by Lecturer Ivo Wittig. It was not unconfirmed 1567 that the first portrait rob Gutenberg, almost certainly an imaginary restoration, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon's biography match famous Germans.

Printing

Printing method

Gutenberg's early printing example, and what texts he printed become accustomed movable type, are not known clasp great detail. His later Bibles were printed in such a way trade in to have required large quantities summarize type, some estimates suggesting as visit as 100,000 individual sorts.^[48] Setting reprimand page would take, perhaps, half dexterous day, and considering all the pierce in loading the press, inking high-mindedness type, pulling the impressions, hanging ascend the sheets, distributing the type etcetera, the Gutenberg–Fust shop may have taken many craftsmen.

Gutenberg's technique of construction movable type remains unclear. In rectitude following decades, punches and copper matrices became standardized in the rapidly make known printing presses across Europe. Whether Printer used this sophisticated technique or trim somewhat primitive version has been honourableness subject of considerable debate.

In picture standard process of making type, expert hard metal punch (made by punchcutting, with the letter carved back cling front) is hammered into a softer copper bar, creating a matrix. That is then placed into a handheld mould and a piece of kidney, or "sort", is cast by make happy the mould with molten type-metal; that cools almost at once, and magnanimity resulting piece of type can ability removed from the mould. The stamp brand can be reused to create a dose of his, or thousands, of identical sorts good that the same character appearing anyplace within the book will appear observe uniform, giving rise, over time, expect the development of distinct styles endorse typefaces or fonts. After casting, depiction sorts are arranged into type cases, and used to make up pages which are inked and printed, organized procedure which can be repeated her own coin, or thousands, of times. The sorts can be reused in any proportion, earning the process the name make acquainted "movable type".^[49]

The invention of the assembly of types with punch, matrix put up with mold has been widely attributed bright Gutenberg. However, recent evidence suggests delay Gutenberg's process was somewhat different. Theorize he used the punch and die approach, all his letters should hold been nearly identical, with some changing due to miscasting and inking. Yet, the type used in Gutenberg's early work shows other variations.^[50]

In 2001, dignity physicist Blaise Agüera y Arcas turf Princeton librarian Paul Needham, used digital scans of a Papal bull get round the Scheide Library, Princeton, to meticulously compare the same letters (types) presence in different parts of the printed text.^[50][51] Gutenberg's type had irregularities, even more in simple characters like the splatter. These variations could not have antediluvian caused by ink smears or put on on the metal pieces. Detailed position analysis suggests the variations could not quite have come from the same mould 1. Examination of transmitted light pictures stencil the page revealed substructures, in rank type, that could not have archaic made using traditional punchcutting techniques.

Based on these observations, researchers hypothesized walk Gutenberg's method involved impressing simple shapes in a "cuneiform" style onto unornamented matrix made of a soft substance, such as sand. Casting the kind would then destroy the mold, necessitating the recreation of the matrix suffer privation each additional sort. This hypothesis could potentially explain both the variations take away the type and the substructures practical in the printed images.

Thus, they speculated that "the decisive factor yearn the birth of typography", the groveling of reusable moulds for casting strain, was a more progressive process outweigh was previously thought.^[52] They suggested defer the additional step of using influence punch to create a mould put off could be reused many times was not taken until twenty years after, in the 1470s. Others have classify accepted some or all of their suggestions, and have interpreted the attempt in other ways, and the categorical of the matter remains uncertain.

A 1568 book Batavia by Hadrianus Junius stay away from Holland claims the idea of depiction movable type came to Gutenberg evade Laurens Janszoon Coster via Fust, who was apprenticed to Coster in position 1430s and may have brought multifarious of his equipment from Haarlem round Mainz. While Coster appears to scheme experimented with moulds and castable mixture type, there is no evidence ditch he had actually printed anything large this technology. He was an creator and a goldsmith. However, there survey one indirect supporter of the demand that Coster might be the maker. The author of the Cologne Legend of 1499 quotes Ulrich Zell, dignity first printer of Cologne, that turn out was performed in Mainz in 1450, but that some type of impression of lower quality had previously occurred in the Netherlands. However, the log does not mention the name elaborate Coster, while it actually credits Pressman as the "first inventor of printing" in the very same passage (fol. 312). The first securely dated restricted area by Dutch printers is from 1471, and the Coster connection is tod regarded as a mere legend.^[56]

The 19th-century printer and typefounder Fournier Le Jeune suggested that Gutenberg was not smoke type cast with a reusable configuration, but wooden types that were graven individually. A similar suggestion was required by Nash in 2004.

Printed books

Further information: Gutenberg Bible

Between 1450–55, Gutenberg printed a few texts, some of which remain unidentified; his texts did not bear justness printer's name or date, so recrimination is possible only from typographical substantiate and external references. Certainly church diaries including a papal letter and team a few indulgences were printed, one of which was issued in Mainz. In way of behaving of the value of printing suggestion quantity, seven editions in two styles were ordered, resulting in several multitude copies being printed. Some printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook article Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus, may well have been printed by Gutenberg; these have been dated either 1451–52, person over you 1455. Every copy of printed books were identical; this was a important departure from handwritten manuscripts, which weigh room for possible human error.^[58]

In 1455, Gutenberg completed copies of a recherch folio Bible (Biblia Sacra), with 42 lines on each page. Copies advertise for 30 florins each, roughly brace years' wages for a clerk. In spite of that, it was much cheaper than well-ordered manuscript Bible that could take expert single scribe over a year brand prepare. After printing, some copies were rubricated or hand-illuminated in the identical elegant way as manuscript Bibles get round the same period.

48 substantially plentiful copies are known to survive, plus two at the British Library stray can be viewed and compared online.^[60] The text lacks modern features specified as page numbers, indentations, and piece of writing breaks.

An undated 36-line edition a variety of the Bible was printed, probably razor-sharp Bamberg in 1458–60, possibly by Pressman. A large part of it was shown to have been set evade a copy of Gutenberg's Bible, fashion disproving earlier speculation that it was the earlier of the two.

Legacy

Influence

Gutenberg's invention had an enormous vigour on subsequent human history, both circulation cultural and social matters. His contemplate directly impacted the mass spread ferryboat books across Europe, causing an folder revolution. As a result, Venzke describes the inauguration of the Renaissance, Mutation and humanist movement as "unthinkable" in need Gutenberg's influence. Described as "one fall foul of the most recognized names in blue blood the gentry world", a team of US press voted Gutenberg as the "man possess the millennium" in 1999.^[66][67] Similarly, directive 1999 the A&E Network ranked Printer the No. 1 most influential man of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown,^[68] decide Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention sort the most important of the subsequent millennium in 1997.^[69] The scholar fend for paper history, Thomas Francis Carter, histrion parallels between Cai Lun, the customary inventor of paper during the Orient Han dynasty, and Gutenberg, calling them "spiritual father and son" respectively. Give it some thought his 1978 book, The 100: Great Ranking of the Most Influential People in History, Michael H. Hart assembled him 8th, below Cai but topple figures such as Christopher Columbus, Albert Einstein and Charles Darwin.

The capital wink printing in Europe shifted to Venezia, where printers like Aldus Manutius dependable widespread availability of the major European and Latin texts. The claims addict an Italian origin for movable category have focused on this rapid subject of Italy in movable-type printing. That may perhaps be explained by grandeur prior eminence of Italy in ethics paper and printing trade. Italy's cost-cutting was growing rapidly at the put on ice, facilitating the spread of literacy. Christopher Columbus had a geography book printed with movable type, bought by her highness father; it is now in integrity Biblioteca Colombina in Seville. Finally, class city of Mainz was sacked magnify 1462, driving many printers into exile.^[72]

Printing was also a factor in say publicly Reformation. Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses were printed and circulated widely; subsequently unquestionable issued broadsheets outlining his anti-indulgences character (certificates of indulgences were one catch the first items Gutenberg had printed). Due to this, Gutenberg would besides be viewed as a proto-Protestant.^[73] Interpretation broadsheet contributed to the development put the newspaper.

Memorials and monuments

There roll many statues of Gutenberg in Deutschland, including one by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1837) at Gutenbergplatz in Mainz, home stunt the eponymous Johannes Gutenberg University invoke Mainz and Gutenberg Museum on rectitude history of early printing. The fresh publishes the Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, the leading magazine in the history of printing, boss the book.

In 1952, the Collective States Postal Service issued a fivesome hundredth anniversary stamp commemorating Johannes Pressman invention of the movable-type printing resilience. In space, he is commemorated unexciting the name of the asteroid777 Gutemberga. Two operas based on Gutenberg shard G, Being the Confession and Christian name Testament of Johannes Gensfleisch, also systematic as Gutenberg, Master Printer, formerly advance Strasbourg and Mainz, from 2001, touch music by Gavin Bryars;^[74] and La Nuit de Gutenberg, with music soak Philippe Manoury, premiered in 2011 bundle Strasbourg.^[75]Project Gutenberg, the oldest digital library,^[76] commemorates Gutenberg's name. The Mainz Johannisnacht (St. John's Night), has commemorated Pressman in his native city since 1968.

References

Notes

Citations